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Introduction
The rapid evolution of technological innovation, particularly in artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML), is reshaping numerous sectors at an unprecedented pace. These advancements critically depend on the availability and quality of data, following the principle that higher-quality data lead to more significant insights and outcomes. Among various data types, biometric data stand out for their depth and potential utility, ranging from daily health indicators to complex genomic profiles1. This vast array of data enables a sophisticated understanding of health and lifestyle patterns, enhancing predictive models for pharmacological interventions and physiological simulations conducted in silico2.
However, the accumulation and management of such sensitive biometric data pose significant ethical and governance challenges, particularly regarding ownership rights, which are rarely conferred upon the data creators. This misalignment between data generation and proprietary rights raises serious concerns about privacy, control, and the equitable use of personal information3. Traditional methods—such as encryption4, secure hardware5, anonymization6, and zero-knowledge proofs (ZKPs)7—ensure privacy and security, but they primarily focus on access control rather than decentralized ownership or monetization. While ZKPs support privacy-preserving authentication, they are computationally intensive and lack data portability. Privacy-focused databases ensure regulatory compliance but depend on centralized trust, limiting user autonomy. In contrast, NFTs offer a decentralized framework enabling verifiable ownership, secure transactions, and traceability. When combined with advanced cryptographic methods, NFTs provide a scalable and privacy-enhancing solution for sensitive data management.
Non-fungible tokens (NFTs) have emerged as a transformative solution to these challenges. NFTs are unique digital tokens powered by blockchain technology, representing scarce digital assets with distinct value within a blockchain network. While previous studies have explored the integration of biometric data with NFTs2,8,9,10, they have primarily remained conceptual, focusing on theoretical discussions rather than practical implementation. In contrast, the objective of this study is to develop a secure and decentralized framework—Cell-NFT—for the ownership, management, and application of biometric data using NFT technology.
Unlike previous research focused on domains like the Internet of Vehicles (IoV)11,12, the Cell-NFT framework introduces innovations specifically tailored for healthcare. These innovations include standardized data management, robust ownership mechanisms, and cryptographic privacy-enhancing techniques, ensuring compliance with data protection regulations in healthcare and biotechnology.
Traditional database systems, while efficient at storing and retrieving data, rely on centralized control for access management and data integrity. This centralized approach introduces risks such as unauthorized modifications, lack of transparency, and dependence on intermediaries for trust. In contrast, blockchain technology offers a decentralized solution, where data integrity is cryptographically verifiable, and records are tamper-proof. By integrating these features, the Cell-NFT framework ensures that biometric data ownership and transactions are transparent, auditable, and resistant to manipulation.
The metadata schema for Cell-NFTs is not a simple replication of traditional database functions but is designed to leverage blockchain’s unique advantages in data security and provenance tracking. Unlike conventional databases, where data integrity depends on a central authority, blockchain-based metadata guarantees tamper-proof records, cryptographically verifiable ownership, and decentralized access control. This approach is particularly valuable in biomedical applications, where regulatory compliance, transparency, and auditability are essential. Traditional databases are vulnerable to unauthorized modifications and require extensive trust in intermediaries, whereas blockchain mitigates these risks by providing a transparent and immutable ledger of all recorded interactions. By incorporating these features, our approach offers significant improvements in data integrity, security, and long-term reliability compared to conventional storage solutions.
Our research presents a pioneering methodology that integrates biometric data into NFTs to establish robust ownership records. By tokenizing biometric information, this framework preserves individual uniqueness and represents biological identity within the digital sphere, enabling secure certification of data ownership. Biometric NFTs contain comprehensive digital life data, enabling their governance and exchange across diverse digital platforms and marketplaces. The accompanying metadata schema is designed to boost both accessibility and practical use by streamlining data sharing and transactions, thereby enhancing management workflows and reinforcing the foundation of a secure and efficient digital health infrastructure.
Tokenized biometric data have diverse applications, including use by hospitals and pharmaceutical companies. To address limitations in current NFT-based healthcare and biotechnology solutions, our framework employs a metadata schema and ecosystem designed to achieve enhanced data security, streamlined processes, and improved accessibility. This tokenization introduces societal benefits, such as improved data management security and the emergence of new industries centered on innovative digital assets. Additionally, the work underscores the concept of individuality in the digital age, presenting both challenges and opportunities at the intersection of human behavior, ethics, and societal norms.
ResultsIssuance of Cell-NFTs using biometric dataFig. 1
Issuance of NFTs using biometric data. (a) Types of biometric data derived from the human body. (b) Process of collecting cardiomyocytes from urine as biometric data. (c) Impact of NFTs created from the collected cardiomyocytes and their associated metadata.
Biometric data can be generated from various human physiological functions, including facial recognition, cardiac and pulmonary metrics, and biological sample analysis (Fig. 1a). These data are crucial for understanding individual health, identity, and physiological function. A central aim of this research is to tokenize such biological information, with a particular focus on cardiomyocytes, given their central role in heart function. By tokenizing these cells, we enable virtual ownership of an individual’s heart through NFTs. These NFTs encapsulate encrypted metadata on the blockchain, which includes key information such as genetic data, experimental details, and ownership records.
In addition to cardiomyocytes, other types of biometric data—such as those derived from various cell types (Fig. 1b)—can be tokenized using NFTs. The metadata from these cells can be utilized for identity authentication. The study protocol received ethical approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the Kangwon National University Bioethics Committee (Republic of Korea) (KWNUIRB-2024-02-008-001).
For this study, cells were derived from noninvasive, easily collectible urine samples and subsequently dedifferentiated into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) (Fig. 1b). Notably, iPSCs can differentiate into various cell types, including osteocytes, neurons, and muscle cells. Cardiomyocytes, a specific type of muscle cell, were selected for the issuance of Cell-NFTs. Given that NFTs can be produced in video format, dynamic representations of the cardiomyocytes—such as heartbeats—are provided as supplementary videos (Supplementary Videos 1 and 2), enhancing the personal connection to the tokenized data and their market value.
The encrypted metadata within these NFTs can be classified into three categories: Biological data, Image data, and Experimental data (Fig. 1c). Biological data can include unique identifiers such as cell-specific DNA and RNA sequences obtained from whole-genome sequencing (Supplementary Fig. 1). Image data consist of captured cell images that are minted as NFTs. Experimental data provide a comprehensive overview of the processes involved, such as the dates on which cells were acquired, the differentiation methods used, and the timeline of NFT creation. Within the Image and Experimental data, it is feasible to demonstrate the process of obtaining cells from an individual to establish ownership rights over the NFTs.
Cell imaging serves a dual purpose: it is both scientifically valuable and aesthetically engaging. This dual function has been recognized by companies like GE Healthcare, which organizes cell imaging competitions, as well as by renowned academic institutions such as the University of Queensland, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), and Stanford. These institutions host contests to showcase beautiful cell images, further highlighting the appeal of cellular imagery. Such collections not only attract attention for their visual impact but also provide a rich dataset, capturing the interest of the scientific community eager to extract detailed biological and experimental information.
Reprogramming UDC into cardiomyocytes
Cardiomyocytes derived from urine samples are isolated through three critical steps, as illustrated in Fig. 2a and Supplementary Fig. 2, and detailed in previous studies13,14. The first step involves isolating urine-derived cells (UDCs) from urine samples. These UDCs are then reprogrammed into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) through electroporation, a non-viral technique that avoids the risks of oncogene activation associated with viral reprogramming methods15 (Supplementary Fig. 3). The final step involves differentiating the iPSCs into cardiomyocytes, as demonstrated in Supplementary Fig. 4.
Fig. 2
Differentiation method and morphology of cardiomyocytes. (a) Three steps for obtaining cardiomyocytes from urine. (b) Conceptual illustration of a WGS-based analysis of UDC-derived genetic information. (c) Confocal image of cardiomyocytes stained with cardiac troponin T, alpha-actinin-2, and Hoechst 33,342 (scale bar: 20 μm). (d) Spontaneous contraction and expansion of cardiomyocytes, mimicking a natural heartbeat.
Figure 2b illustrates a potential approach for acquiring comprehensive genetic information from UDCs using whole genome sequencing. This sequencing provides a detailed view of an individual’s unique genetic code, aiding in identity authentication16. Furthermore, since lifestyle and environmental factors can impact genomic data over generations17, storing such diverse biometric data on the blockchain (as shown in Fig. 1a) allows the analysis of their interrelationships and discovery of new insights18,19.
To assess the morphology of the cardiomyocytes, we captured high-resolution fluorescence images (Fig. 2c and Supplementary Figs. 5 and 6). Cardiomyocytes exhibit rhythmic contraction and expansion, mimicking the natural heartbeat at a rate of 60 beats/min (Fig. 2d and Supplementary Videos 1 and 2).
The implications of these findings within the NFT space are profound. Integrating human life data into the metaverse marks a pioneering development, garnering significant interest from potential NFT participants. This integration serves two important purposes: it helps alleviate apprehensions individuals may have about the metaverse while also offering a unique, personal way to preserve and memorialize the biological data of loved ones in a virtual space. This allows for the celebration and preservation of life, even in the digital realm.
NFT issuance and metadata from the extracted cells
The fluorescence image of the cardiomyocyte shown in Fig. 2c was minted as a unique digital token, termed as Cell-NFT. This token encapsulates extensive information, with its value being inherently linked to the intrinsic attributes and cell origin. For example, a cell derived from a notable individual could command a higher value. As illustrated in Fig. 3a, these Cell-NFTs are available for acquisition in the contemporary metaverse marketplace using digital currencies such as Ethereum20.
Ethereum utilizes the environmentally sustainable Proof of Stake (PoS) consensus mechanism21,22,23, which significantly reduces the energy consumption typically associated with mining. This eco-friendly approach offers substantial environmental benefits, particularly for large-scale applications. In contrast, Proof of Work (PoW) mining requires considerable electrical energy and computational resources for block creation and verification, resulting in enhanced security. Moreover, PoW’s decentralized nature fosters a secure, independent network. As such, many blockchain platforms suitable for the creation of these added-value tokens will emerge, with the most effective methods likely evolving through collaboration with major projects like Bitcoin, Bitmobick, and Ethereum.
Similar to conventional NFTs, each Cell-NFT is accompanied by a descriptive section that provides potential investors with a summary of the tokenized cell, thereby enhancing its appeal. Crucially, the metadata, which serve as the digital fingerprint of the token, are encrypted and securely embedded within the NFT via blockchain technology. As illustrated in Fig. 3b, metadata are categorized into three domains: “Biological data,” “Image data,” and “Experimental data.” The integration of these metadata categories is fundamental to the minting of each Cell-NFT.
Fig. 3
Metadata in an issued Cell-NFT. (a) Illustration of an issued Cell-NFT with three categories of metadata. (b) Detailed breakdown of each metadata category. (c) URL of the minted Cell-NFT containing cardiomyocytes and its associated metadata. (d) Metadata schema for the Cell-NFT with cardiomyocytes.
Once minted, Cell-NFTs are made available on OpenSea, a prominent NFT marketplace. These tokens hold value beyond marketplace transactions; they also have practical applications in sectors like healthcare and pharmaceuticals, depending on their intended purpose. URLs linking to these NFTs are displayed in Fig. 3c. Although OpenSea offers a public-facing platform, it ensures the privacy of metadata by concealing its detailed content. Only the legitimate owner of the Cell-NFT can access the complete metadata, which is structured as shown in Fig. 3d.
Metadata Schema of Cell-NFT
The metadata of a Cell-NFT comprise various types of cell-related information, organized within a structured schema as shown in Fig. 3d. This schema includes sections such as “name,” “description,” “image,” “donator,” “experimentation,” and “processing procedure,” each detailing specific aspects of the cell. Supplementary Fig. 7 provides detailed explanations of each section. Additionally, comprehensive metadata associated with the Cell-NFT can be accessed through the designated metadata URLs in Fig. 3c and Supplementary Figs. 8 and 9.
Fig. 4
Cell-NFT ecosystem: (a) Cell NFT Issuer. (b) Cell Storage. (c) Cell-NFT. (d) NFT Marketplace.
Cell-NFT ecosystem
The Cell-NFT ecosystem introduces a groundbreaking approach to the representation and transaction of cellular data, as illustrated in Fig. 4. This ecosystem enables the value and ownership of biological data to be represented as NFTs. In this system, ownership of a Cell-NFT not only confers biological data but also confers tangible economic value, making the NFT tradable in various NFT marketplaces.
As shown in Fig. 4a, when a cell donor wishes to tokenize their biological data, they request a Cell-NFT issuer to facilitate the creation of Cell Storage. The issuer, which can be an individual or institution, plays a critical role in validating the NFT prototype through consensus from a pool of trusted issuers. Upon issuance, Cell Storage provides a unique contract address to the Cell-NFT issuer and updates the donor’s affiliated smart contract.
If a buyer or researcher expresses interest in the cell’s data, Cell Storage acts as an intermediary, alerting the donor to any incoming offers or bids (Fig. 4b). Upon the donor’s approval, Cell Storage proceeds to mint the Cell-NFT (Fig. 4c). The minted NFT is then transferred to the interested buyer or researcher following payment. A real-world scenario from a researcher’s perspective illustrates how Cell-NFTs can be minted,
